Herding Sheep in Historical and Biblical Sources
The sight of sheep and the practice of shepherding have deep historical roots. As recorded in the Book of Genesis: "Pharaoh said to his brothers, 'What is your occupation?' And they said to Pharaoh, 'Your servants are shepherds, as our fathers were'" (Genesis 47:3).
The imagery of shepherding appears prominently in the Book of Amos, drawn from the prophet's own background as a shepherd: "The words of Amos, one of the shepherds of Tekoa – the vision he saw concerning Israel two years before the earthquake, when Uzziah was king of Judah and Jeroboam son of Jehoash[a] was king of Israel. He said: 'The Lord roars from Zion and thunders from Jerusalem; the pastures of the shepherds dry up and the top of Carmel withers" (Amos 1:1-2).
The Holy One is often likened to a "shepherd," while the people of Israel are depicted as "His flock." This symbolism extends to leadership, where the leaders of Israel are expected to embody the qualities of a shepherd – caring, guiding, and protecting. "Now Moses was tending the flock of Jethro his father-in-law, the priest of Midian, and he led the flock to the far side of the wilderness and came to Horeb, the mountain of God" (Exodus 3:1)/
In Psalms 11, it is written: "the Lord tries the righteous," and Jewish tradition explains that God tested individuals through shepherding. David, for instance, was examined through his care for sheep and found to be a good shepherd before being entrusted with the people of Israel. Similarly, Moses was tested in the flock before leading the nation. As noted in Shemot Rabbah, Parsha 3:3: "You have two great men of the world whom the Lord tested in a small matter and found them faithful, and because of this, they went on to greatness" – David and Moses.
The website of Hashomer Yosh – an organization founded in 2013 to support farmers in the West Bank (sanctioned by the UK, claiming that it is "a non-governmental organization that provides volunteers for illegal outposts, including Meitarim Outpost, which was founded by the extremist settler Yinon Levi, who the UK sanctioned earlier on") – states under the heading "Pasture:" "Taking the flock or cattle out to pasture is a significant part of daily life on the farm. One of the most effective tools for preserving open areas in the West Bank is the daily grazing of sheep and cattle. The grazing area covers thousands of dunams, more than any other agricultural crop. The average grazing area is the size of a medium-sized city in Israel, and thus grazing protects the land reserves of the State of Israel from illegal takeover."
The strategic use of grazing for land control in the West Bank began in the early 1970s. By the early 1980s, confidential documents indicate that land was allocated for grazing purposes, leading to later settlement expansion. For instance, a document from November 1981, issued by the "Judea and Samaria Division," ordered the allocation of 850 dunams from the villages of Jalud, Turmus Ayya, and Qaryut to settlers in Shiloh for grazing. Over time, these grazing allocations evolved into areas that settlers took over for construction. Another document from March 1982 detailed the allocation of 2,500 dunams from the villages of Al-Tayba and Deir Jarir for grazing near the Rimonim settlement. This land remains largely undeveloped, as much of it falls within what the military has designated as "Firing Area 906."
Between 2012 and mid-2019, over 20 outposts were established as shepherding farms, with their establishment and operation coordinated with the Israeli military, which provided them with full backing.
The proliferation of pastoral farms has become a central strategy for settlers in the West Bank. Through the practice of grazing, these farms play a role in pushing Palestinian shepherding communities off their lands.
In late February 2021, Ze'ev "Zambish" Hever, Secretary-General of the Amana Movement, stated that Amana planned to establish ten additional pastoral farms outposts in the West Bank within the coming year. He emphasized that these farms serve as an effective means of securing control over large areas of land, much more so than traditional settlement construction. "Construction takes up little space, for economic reasons. We reached 100 square kilometers after more than 50 years," Hever explained. "However, the pastoral farms now control more than twice the area of the built-up settlements. One farm preserves thousands of dunams of land."
By December 2021, reports indicated that between 2017 and 2021, Israelis had established more than 50 new isolated settlements in the West Bank, at least 35 of which were pastoral farms, with the purpose of claiming control over hundreds of thousands of dunams of land.
In the early 2020s, a critical shift occurred in the scale, resources, and impact of these shepherding farms, leading to increased tensions between settlers and Palestinian communities. This expansion continues to reshape the dynamics of land use and ownership in the region.
The establishment of pastoral farms in the West Bank has occurred without government authorization, lacking building permits, and in violation of international law. Many of these farms have become focal points for violence against Palestinians. There exists a complex relationship between the State of Israel and the settlers, where the state enables legal violations through inaction and indirect support.
Most pastoral farms are not the result of spontaneous local initiatives or individual efforts. Instead, their creation is facilitated by government backing, which includes land allocations, financial incentives, and infrastructure development. Additionally, settlers benefit from public funding and protection from Israeli law enforcement authorities.
Many settlers residing on these farms are armed, accompanied by attack dogs, and employ ATVs, horses, and drones. Reports indicate that they frequently attack Palestinians, threaten communities, invade private homes, kill and injure livestock, destroy property, damage crops, and seize water sources. This violence is deliberate and systematic, aimed at displacing Palestinian farmers from their lands, restricting grazing areas, and expanding Jewish territorial control.
The use of violence to establish dominance and displace Palestinians is tacitly supported by Israel. This support is demonstrated through direct military assistance and a lack of enforcement against settlers engaging in criminal activities. In stark contrast, Palestinian shepherd communities face home demolitions and restricted living areas imposed by Israeli authorities.
Through these pastoral farms, Israel aims to create a lasting shift in the landscape of settlements in the West Bank. This policy severely impacts Palestinian human rights and threatens to result in the large-scale dispossession and displacement of Palestinian communities.
A report published by Kerem Navot in June 2022 highlighted that settlers have taken control of approximately 238,000 dunams following the establishment of 77 farm outposts (66 of which were created in the past decade). Nearly a third of this land lies within military "firing zones," where even Israelis are officially prohibited from entering. Additionally, tens of thousands of dunams fall within nature reserves, where grazing is forbidden without coordination with the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. The report concludes that Israeli sheep and cattle grazing in the West Bank has become the most significant tool used by Israel to dispossess Palestinian communities over the past decade.
Farm outposts are categorized into three main types: Permanent pastoral outposts, which serve as long-term grazing settlements; Young agricultural outposts, established within the past decade, where grazing is secondary but has the potential to expand in the future; Subsidiary outposts, which are branches of permanent pastoral outposts and are occasionally dismantled and reestablished.
As of mid-November 2024, reports indicate that approximately 90 pastoral farms are active across the West Bank, with over 20 new farms established in the past year alone. These farms collectively control an estimated 650,000 dunams, primarily within Area C. Their overarching objective is to remove Palestinians from agricultural and grazing sectors and consolidate control over vast territories. As a result, approximately 35 Palestinian shepherd communities have already been forced to abandon their homes due to repeated violence from settlers. Internationally, both the U.S. and the European Union have announced sanctions against six farm owners, yet enforcement on the ground remains absent.
Support of the Israeli Authorities
General: In 2023, the Israeli government allocated 15 million NIS to 68 pastoral farms in the West Bank. An additional 39 million NIS is budgeted for 2024 to further support these farms. Furthermore, non-farm outposts received 13 million NIS in 2023, with an increased allocation of 25 million NIS for 2024. These funds have been used to finance infrastructure, security measures, and agricultural expansion, further entrenching the settler presence in the region. "Security components" include vehicles such as rangers, drones, cameras, generators, electric gates, light poles, fences, solar panels, and more. The IDF and the Central Command were actively involved in planning and approving the allocation of funds, including determining which farms and outposts would receive financial support and specifying the security components that would be funded at each location.
The funds were allocated to the Ministry of Settlement and National Missions, under Minister Orit Struk, and transferred to the World Zionist Organization's Settlement Division, which managed the financial distribution. The Settlement Division subsequently funneled the funds to regional councils of the settlements, which, in turn, financed operations on farms and outposts.
The state also played a role in facilitating the physical establishment of these farms. Examples include Zvi Bar Yosef's farm (sanctioned internationally for repeatedly attacked and committed acts of violence against Palestinians, causing severe injuries to some of them) – who received security cameras; and Neria Ben Pazi's farm – who received from the Ministry of Agriculture cellular panels costing 12,000 NIS. Ben Pazi operates a farm outpost near Kochav Hashahar, close to the Palestinian village of Wadi a-Sik, whose residents fled in October 2023 following reports of ongoing harassment and attacks by farm personnel. Israeli and Palestinian activists reported that Ben Pazi was present during these incidents. In response, the U.S. imposed sanctions on him in March 2024.
Ministry of Agriculture
An analysis by the organization Peace Now based on Ministry of Finance data reveals that, over the six years leading to mid-June 2024, the Ministry of Agriculture allocated approximately 1.66 million NIS to agricultural outposts in the West Bank, with an additional 1.5 million NIS approved for payment but not yet disbursed. While some Arab herders who are Israeli citizens receive support, only Israeli herders are eligible for assistance in the West Bank, whereas Palestinian herders are excluded.
The funds are allocated to promote grazing in open areas under the pretext of "ecological considerations." The official procedures state: "One of the objectives of the Ministry of Agriculture is the preservation of open areas. The Ministry has a vital interest in encouraging the possession and cultivation of open areas to ensure ecological balance, scenic and social contributions, and continued agricultural activity. The protection of these areas involves preventing fires, mitigating soil erosion, controlling the wolf population, and preventing unauthorized takeovers. To achieve these goals, the Ministry provides financial incentives for open-area grazing. The criteria for financial support depend on the grazing area and the number of livestock."
However, the Ministry's involvement extends beyond direct support for grazing. The Israeli government has allocated more than 8,500 dunams to six agricultural farms and outposts in the West Bank for grazing and agricultural purposes – despite the fact that these outposts were built without legal permits. The Ministry of Agriculture has also funded three organizations that supply volunteers for agricultural work in these outposts: Hashomer Yosh, Kedma, and the Beit Yatir – Pre-army Torah Academy.
Impact on Palestinian Shepherds
In 2017, reports indicated that Palestinian shepherds in the West Bank and Gaza Strip managed approximately one million livestock, providing essential dairy and meat products for the Palestinian population. Roughly 30,000 Palestinian shepherds live across 183 Bedouin communities in Area C, facing an escalating crisis due to Israeli policies that systematically reduce their grazing areas.
These policies – affecting approximately 60 percents of the West Bank – have significantly impacted their ability to sustain their flocks. With open grazing areas increasingly restricted, Palestinian shepherds are forced to purchase fodder, substantially increasing the cost of maintaining their herds.
Palestinian shepherds belong to one of the most impoverished segments of society, residing in harsh conditions with minimal access to basic services such as sanitation, infrastructure, healthcare, and education. Sheep herding represents both their primary livelihood and a centuries-old tradition.
By late 2021, reports highlighted that continued encroachment on their grazing lands not only threatened their economic stability but also jeopardized their traditional way of life. Palestinian shepherds primarily rely on wild pastures to meet the nutritional needs of their livestock. However, when these lands are blocked – often due to Israeli policy decisions – they are left with no choice but to purchase fodder at high costs. While some manage to sustain themselves temporarily, many are ultimately forced to sell portions of their herds or abandon the profession entirely. Many displaced shepherds find work in Israeli settlements, further contributing to the cycle of dependency and displacement.
It is reported that the West Bank has more than 2 million dunams of land suitable for grazing sheep, suggesting that, on the surface, there is no shortage of grazing land. However, Israel permits Palestinian shepherds to access only about a third of this land. One of the greatest challenges Palestinian shepherds face is the continuous expansion of settlements, as their boundaries frequently shift to accommodate the agricultural interests of settlers. Infrastructure projects, including roads and security fences, often disrupt the traditional grazing paths of Palestinian shepherds, creating physical barriers between Bedouin communities and their pastureland. In some cases, open grazing areas are suddenly fenced off overnight, rendering them accessible only to settlers, while fences placed by Palestinians around grazing areas are swiftly dismantled by the Israeli military. Some pastures that were historically used for grazing have even been converted into settlement landfills, making them hazardous for livestock.
Due to the expansion of farm outposts, many Palestinian shepherds have been forced to reduce their herds or sell them entirely, as access to grazing land diminishes and reliance on expensive purchased feed increases. Rising feed prices, combined with severe restrictions on Palestinian construction in Area C, have exacerbated the economic hardship for Palestinian shepherds, making it increasingly difficult for them to sustain their way of life.
By late February 2023, reports indicated that approximately 10,000 Israelis resided in settlements in the Jordan Valley, alongside 65,000 Palestinians living in urban and rural communities. Additionally, around 2,700 Palestinian farmers and shepherds lived in small, remote communities, making them some of the most vulnerable and persecuted populations in the West Bank. These groups suffer from frequent abuse by both the Israeli Civil Administration and extremist settler groups, often referred to as the Hilltop Youth.
By late August 2023, reports highlighted the use of sheep herding as a means of Palestinian displacement. The example of Wadi a-Siq, located in the Ramallah district, was cited: almost daily, and sometimes multiple times per day, settlers from the Rimonim settlement area entered the village, grazing their flocks between Palestinian homes and in residents' agricultural fields. Over time, these activities completely devastated local fields, leaving Palestinian families unable to grow crops. Fearing settler violence, Palestinian shepherds ceased grazing in their fields and were forced to buy expensive fodder instead. Once the settlers had destroyed local crops and eliminated the residents’ livelihoods, they began plowing and cultivating the fields for themselves. These rural Palestinian communities receive no protection, as Israeli police rarely respond to calls from Palestinian residents. When Palestinians attempt to defend their land, they face arrests by Israeli authorities or violent retaliation from settlers.
A common tactic employed by settlers to expel Palestinian shepherds is to scatter their herds using ATVs, drones, or direct physical confrontation. Settlers unilaterally declare certain areas off-limits to Palestinian grazing and forcibly expel any Palestinian shepherds attempting to graze there. In many cases, settlers themselves live in illegal outposts and lack any legal documentation proving ownership of the land, yet their claims are often enforced by the Israeli military, which assists in evicting Palestinian shepherds even from lands with no legal basis for expulsion.
Escalation After October 7, 2023
Since October 7, 2023, there has been a rapid acceleration in the expulsion of Palestinian pastoralist and agricultural communities from Area C, particularly in the Jordan Valley, the Benjamin region, and the southern Hebron Hills. Key developments include: Grazing areas have been significantly reduced; Access to water sources has been severely restricted; Coordinated efforts between settlers, the Israeli military, and the Jordan Valley Regional Council have facilitated widespread displacement.
One widely used method of land appropriation is the construction of long fences, often stretching hundreds or even thousands of meters. Additionally, checkpoints have been established to prevent Palestinians from accessing agricultural roads they previously used.
In the second half of November 2023, settlers initiated the construction of a large fence along the Alon Road (Road 578) in the northern Jordan Valley. The fence extends from opposite the settlement of Maskyot southward, passing the Havat Eretz Shemesh outpost and continuing another two kilometers south. The stated purpose of the fence is to prevent Palestinian shepherds from grazing their flocks in the area, further restricting their access to land essential for their livelihood.
The cumulative impact of these policies and actions is forcing many Palestinian shepherds to abandon their way of life, resulting in the continued erosion of Palestinian rural communities in the West Bank.
While international and Israeli attention was focused on southern Israel and Gaza, settlers took advantage of the situation to expand their control over Area C. According to B'Tselem (late October 2023), 13 Palestinian communities were forcibly displaced, and five additional communities were partially evacuated. In total, 129 families, comprising 850 individuals, were affected. Prior to the war, six communities – 450 people – had already been displaced over two years due to settler violence, often with tacit support from the Israeli military.
From October 7, 2023, to mid-March 2024, settlers seized an additional 4,000 dunams of land. The vast areas now controlled by settler farms include land that Israel had previously designated as firing zones or nature reserves between the late 1960s and 1980s. Despite these designations, Palestinian pastoral communities had used these lands for generations for grazing – both before and after Israel's 1967 occupation of the West Bank. The restriction of access to these lands severely undermines Palestinian herders' ability to graze livestock and sustain their livelihoods.
Violence from settler farm residents against Palestinian communities has been a long-standing issue. However, testimonies collected by B'Tselem and Israeli Protective Presence activists indicate a sharp increase in both frequency and severity of attacks since October 7. Reported violent actions include: Charging into Palestinian flocks with tractors or horses, trampling livestock; Allowing settler herds to graze in cultivated Palestinian fields, destroying crops; Setting dogs on Palestinian residents; Nighttime raids into Palestinian villages; Theft of sheep and goats; Vandalizing and burning Palestinian property; Physical assaults on Palestinian residents and Israeli activists; Threats and intimidation to deter Palestinians from grazing.
Despite these violent incidents, Israeli police rarely investigate settler aggression. When Palestinians or Israeli activists attempt to file complaints, they often find themselves treated as suspects rather than victims.
As of March 2024, at least 15 Palestinian herding communities – including hundreds of children – had been forcibly displaced due to escalating settler violence.
By mid-April 2024, reports surfaced that armed settlers, sometimes wearing IDF uniforms, had begun stealing sheep and goats from Palestinian shepherds. These individuals, often identifiable by religious garments such as kippahs, wigs, and turbans, carried out organized raids on Palestinian livestock.
Following the murder of Benjamin Achimeir (14) on April 12, 2024, near the farm in Malachi Hashalom, settler herders continued their operations as usual. A shepherd from Givat Sde Yonatan in Binyamin described the situation: "Sheep herding in the West Bank has become a real weapon in the campaign. It is the only tool that enables the control of thousands of dunams with limited resources. Shepherds are on the front lines of the struggle for the land. The Arabs understand this well, which is why they constantly target us. This attack was an attempt to halt the ever-growing settlement enterprise. But we will not stop. Every shepherd has personally returned thousands of dunams to Jewish hands. The dream of returning to Zion is unfolding before our eyes, and we are privileged to be part of it. God willing, we will soon see complete redemption."
By mid-May 2024, 18 Palestinian shepherd communities had disappeared from the the West Bank landscape since the war began.
By mid-September 2024, the Palestinian Authority issued a stark warning: "The hills define the borders through grazing. The settlers have left no place untouched."
In response, Givat Sde Yonatan issued a statement: "Sometimes, the importance of our campaign on the ground becomes clear by listening to our enemies. The Palestinians have finally understood what Trumpeldor [Joseph Trumpeldor was a Russian Zionist activist, who was killed while defending the settlement of Tel Hai in 1920 and subsequently became a national hero. According to a standard account, his last words were: "It is good to die for our country."] meant when he said: 'Where the Jewish plow plows the last furrow, there our border will pass.' Now, instead of seizing land unchallenged, they are waging a collective war against the pioneering settlement movement." The settlers further emphasized: "It is absolutely clear to us that we will continue – at all costs – until we win this battle by establishing permanent Jewish settlements."
In mid-February 2025, the Knesset's Interior and Environmental Protection Committee approved for second and third reading the "Regulation of Residence in Grazing Areas Bill, 2021. The bill proposes to regulate the construction of residential and agriculture structures in grazing areas. In addition, it proposes that the Grazing Authority of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, with the authorization of a Local Planning and Building Committee, approve the construction of such structures.
The new law is expected to benefit settlers in the West Bank, who have taken up goat herding as a way of life. Once the legislation is extended to apply to these territories, the only remaining step will be to classify the farms as falling within the jurisdiction of the regional councils that oversee the settlements. This legal adjustment will effectively transform farm owners from individuals operating outside the law into those acting in full compliance with official regulations.
